A Wolf in Another Wolf’s Clothing: Post-Genomic Regulation Dictates Venom Profiles of Medically-Important Cryptic Kraits in India

The Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) shares a distribution range with many other ‘phenotypically-similar’ kraits across the Indian subcontinent. Despite several reports of fatal envenomings by Bungarus species, commercial antivenoms are only manufactured against B. caeruleus. It is, therefore, imperative to understand genetically distinct lineages kraits, compositional differences in their venoms, and consequent impact venom variation on (pre)clinical effectiveness antivenom therapy. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted phylogenetic comparative venomics investigations Southern Western India. Phylogenetic reconstructions using mitochondrial markers revealed new species krait, Romulus’ krait romulusi sp. nov.), Additionally, found that 17 mid-body dorsal scale rows India do not represent subspecies Sind (B. sindanus walli) as previously believed, but very similar Pakistan. Furthermore, proteomics transcriptomics completely contrasting profiles. While gland transcriptomes all three were highly similar, proteomes toxicity profiles differed significantly, suggesting prominent role post-genomic regulatory mechanisms shaping venoms these cryptic kraits. In vitro recognition vivo neutralisation experiments strong negative variability preclinical performance antivenoms. caeruleus was neutralised per manufacturer’s claim, poor, highlighting need for regionally-effective